John of Damascus: The Last of the Greek Fathers and Defender of Orthodoxy

Born in Damascus around 676 AD, St. John Of Damascus stands as a towering figure in Christian history, revered as a Doctor of the Church and celebrated for his profound theological contributions, particularly during the tumultuous era of Iconoclasm. His life, though shrouded in some legend, reveals a man of deep intellect, unwavering faith, and significant influence on both Eastern and Western Christian thought. Known also as John Damascene, or sometimes as St. John Damascen, his legacy resonates through his extensive writings, hymns, and staunch defense of Christian doctrine. This exploration delves into the life and enduring impact of John of Damascus, a pivotal figure who bridged the patristic age with the medieval period.

Early Life and Education of John Damascene

John of Damascus, whose birth name was likely Mansur, emerged from a prominent Christian family in Damascus. His father, also possibly named Mansur, served as a high-ranking financial official for the Umayyad Caliphate, demonstrating the complex interplay between Christian and Islamic societies during this period. Despite living under Muslim rule, John’s family remained steadfast in their Christian faith, a testament to their deep-rooted convictions.

Recognizing his sons’ potential, John’s father sought to provide them with the best possible education. Fate intervened when a Sicilian monk named Cosmas was captured in a raid and brought to Damascus. This Cosmas, remarkably erudite in both secular and religious knowledge, was identified in the marketplace by John’s father. Securing Cosmas’s release through the Caliph’s influence, Mansur appointed him as tutor to his sons, John and his half-brother Cosmas.

Under Cosmas’s expert guidance, John excelled in a wide range of subjects. His biographer recounts his rapid progress, suggesting he mastered fields as diverse as algebra and geometry, comparing his aptitude to figures like Diophantus and Euclid. Beyond mathematics, John also immersed himself in music, astronomy, and, most importantly, theology. This comprehensive education laid a solid foundation for his future intellectual and spiritual endeavors, shaping him into the formidable theologian and writer he would become.

From Public Servant to Defender of Icons

Following his father’s death, John Damascene initially stepped into the world of public service, inheriting his father’s position as protosymbulus, or chief councillor, in Damascus. This role placed him at the heart of the political landscape, even as significant religious shifts began to ripple through the Byzantine Empire.

The 8th century witnessed the rise of Iconoclasm, a heresy that challenged the veneration of religious images or icons. In 726 AD, Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian initiated his campaign against icons, issuing edicts that sparked widespread unrest and theological debate, particularly in the East. Despite the distance from Constantinople and his position within the Caliphate, John Damascene felt compelled to defend the ancient Christian practice of icon veneration.

From his secure vantage point in Damascus, John became a vocal and powerful opponent of Iconoclasm. He penned a series of treatises defending the use of icons, directly challenging the Emperor’s decrees and theological justifications. His writings were not confined to scholarly circles; John skillfully employed a clear and accessible style, bringing the complexities of the iconoclastic controversy to the understanding of ordinary Christians and galvanizing popular resistance against the imperial edicts.

Emperor Leo, frustrated by John’s influential opposition and unable to directly reach him, resorted to deception. According to tradition, Leo forged a letter seemingly from John to the Emperor, offering to betray Damascus. This fabricated document was sent to the Caliph, who, believing the forgery, ordered the punishment of severing John’s hand. However, legend recounts a miraculous intervention by the Virgin Mary, restoring John’s hand after fervent prayer before her icon. This event, whether historically accurate or a pious narrative, underscores the powerful symbolic role of icons in the context of the Iconoclastic controversy and John’s unwavering faith.

Monastic Life and Priesthood at St. Sabas Monastery

Following the ordeal and, according to accounts, the miraculous restoration of his hand, John Damascene experienced a profound spiritual awakening. Despite the Caliph’s offer to reinstate him to his former position, John chose a different path. Heeding a call to a more contemplative life, he, along with his foster-brother Cosmas, entered the Monastery of St. Sabas, located near Jerusalem.

At St. Sabas, John embraced the monastic discipline, undergoing the traditional period of probation before fully committing to monastic life. His intellectual gifts and deep piety were soon recognized, and John V, Patriarch of Jerusalem, ordained him to the priesthood. In the monastic setting, John found the ideal environment to dedicate himself to theological study, writing, and prayer.

Despite withdrawing from the immediate political sphere, John’s voice could not be silenced. When Constantine V Copronymus, Leo’s successor, convened the pseudo-Synod of Constantinople in 754, solidifying the Iconoclast position and condemning those who defended icons, John Damascene was singled out for particular condemnation. The council heaped insults upon him, labeling him a “cursed favourer of Saracens” and a “traitorous worshipper of images.” His name was even mockingly altered to “Manzer,” meaning “bastard.”

However, the pronouncements of this Iconoclast council were not to be the final word. The Seventh Ecumenical Council, held in Nicaea in 787, definitively condemned Iconoclasm and vindicated the defenders of icons, including John of Damascus. This council reversed the earlier condemnations and affirmed the theological validity of icon veneration. Later, in 1890, Pope Leo XIII formally declared St. John Damascene a Doctor of the Church, solidifying his place as a major theological authority in both the East and West.

The Fountain of Wisdom: John Damascene’s Theological Masterpiece

John Damascene’s most significant contribution to Christian thought is undoubtedly his comprehensive theological work, “The Fountain of Wisdom” (Pēgē gnōseōs). This monumental work is often considered the first summa theologica, predating the scholastic summas of the Western Middle Ages and showcasing John’s encyclopedic approach to theology.

“The Fountain of Wisdom” is structured into three main parts:

1. Philosophical Chapters (Dialectic): This section lays the philosophical groundwork for the theological discussions that follow. Largely based on Aristotelian logic and metaphysics, particularly Porphyry’s “Isagoge” and Aristotle’s “Categories,” the “Dialectic” provides a systematic exposition of philosophical concepts and terminology essential for understanding theological discourse. It demonstrates John’s deep engagement with classical philosophy and his skillful application of philosophical tools to Christian thought.

2. Concerning Heresies: In this part, John presents a detailed catalog and refutation of various Christian heresies, drawing heavily on the earlier work of Epiphanius of Salamis, the “Panarion.” John updates Epiphanius’s list, adding heresies that arose after his time, including discussions of Islam and Iconoclasm, reflecting the contemporary theological landscape. While not entirely original, this section provides a valuable historical overview of theological deviations and orthodox responses.

3. An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (De Fide Orthodoxa): This is the heart of “The Fountain of Wisdom” and John Damascene’s most influential theological treatise. It is a systematic and comprehensive presentation of Orthodox Christian doctrine, covering a vast range of theological topics, including the nature of God, the Trinity, creation, humanity, Christology, and sacraments. John synthesizes the teachings of earlier Church Fathers, drawing extensively from figures like Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, and others, creating a coherent and authoritative summary of Orthodox theology. “De Fide Orthodoxa” became a standard theological text in both the East and West, profoundly influencing subsequent theological developments.

Other Theological Works and Scriptural Commentaries

Beyond “The Fountain of Wisdom,” John Damascene produced a substantial body of theological writings, further solidifying his reputation as a major Christian author. These include:

• Treatises against specific heresies: John wrote works specifically addressing Monophysitism, Monothelitism, and Manichaeism, engaging in detailed theological arguments to defend Orthodox doctrine against these deviations. His treatise “Against the Jacobites” is a notable example, aimed at reconciling Monophysite Christians in Syria with Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.

• Scriptural Commentaries: While not primarily known for originality in biblical exegesis, John compiled “Select Passages” (Loci Selecti) from the homilies of St. John Chrysostom and other Church Fathers, arranging them as commentaries on Pauline epistles. He also produced “Sacred Parallels” (Sacra Parallela), a topical concordance of scriptural and patristic passages organized by theological themes.

• Homilies: A collection of fourteen homilies attributed to John Damascene cover various liturgical feasts and theological themes. His homily on the Transfiguration is particularly celebrated for its eloquence and theological depth, exploring the two natures of Christ and referencing the primacy of Peter. Other notable homilies address Holy Saturday, Easter, the Annunciation, and the Dormition (Assumption) of the Virgin Mary.

John Damascene: The Hymnographer

In addition to his theological prose, John Damascene is also renowned as a significant hymnographer, contributing to the rich tradition of Byzantine liturgical music. He is credited with composing numerous hymns and canons used in the Eastern Orthodox Church, earning him the epithet “Chrysorrhoas” or “Golden Stream” for his poetic and oratorical gifts.

Several hymns are attributed to him, including:

• Easter Canon: Considered his masterpiece, the Easter Canon is a triumphant and joyous hymn sung during Paschal services, often likened to the “Te Deum” of the Greek Church. It is a cornerstone of Orthodox liturgical tradition, expressing the central Christian belief in Christ’s resurrection.

• Hymns for other feasts: John composed canons for Nativity, Epiphany, Pentecost, and other major feasts in the liturgical calendar.

• Well-known English translations: Some of his hymns have gained popularity in English through translations, such as “Come ye faithful raise the strain,” “Tis the Day of Resurrection,” and “Those eternal bowers.”

While the traditional attribution of the entire Octoëchos (a collection of liturgical hymns for Sundays) to John Damascene is now debated, his significant contributions to hymnography are undeniable. He is recognized for adapting choral music for liturgical use and potentially for introducing musical notation to Byzantine chant, although this is also a contested point among music historians.

Legacy and Significance of John of Damascus

St. John Damascene occupies a unique and pivotal position in Christian history. He is often considered the “Last of the Greek Fathers,” marking the culmination of the patristic era in Eastern theology and bridging it with the Byzantine and later scholastic periods. His legacy is multifaceted and enduring:

• Theological Authority: As a Doctor of the Church, John Damascene’s theological writings, particularly “De Fide Orthodoxa,” have exerted immense influence on both Eastern and Western Christian theology. His systematic approach, comprehensive scope, and synthesis of patristic tradition made his work a foundational text for subsequent theologians. His influence is evident in the scholastic theology of the West, with figures like Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas drawing upon Burgundio of Pisa’s Latin translation of “De Fide Orthodoxa.”

• Defender of Icons: His courageous and articulate defense of icon veneration during the Iconoclastic controversy was crucial in preserving this central aspect of Orthodox Christian practice and theology. His arguments continue to be relevant in understanding the theological significance of religious images.

• Hymnographic Contributions: His hymns remain an integral part of Orthodox liturgical worship, enriching the spiritual and aesthetic dimensions of the faith. The Easter Canon, in particular, stands as a timeless expression of Paschal joy.

• Bridge between Traditions: John’s life and work reflect the complex interactions between Christian and Islamic cultures in the 8th century. His ability to navigate these different worlds and draw upon both classical Greek philosophy and Christian patristic tradition makes him a figure of intercultural and interreligious significance.

In conclusion, St. John Damascene’s life and extensive body of work solidify his place as a monumental figure in Christian history. As a theologian, hymnographer, and defender of orthodoxy, his contributions continue to inspire and inform Christian thought and practice to this day, making him a truly timeless Doctor of the Church.