John Pope remains a notable figure in American history, primarily recognized for his controversial role as a Union general during the Civil War. Born on March 16, 1822, in Louisville, Kentucky, his early life and military career paved the way for his prominent, albeit turbulent, position during one of the nation’s most defining periods. This article delves into the life of John Pope, exploring his upbringing, military service, and complex legacy.
Early Life and Military Education of John Pope
Raised in Kaskaskia, Illinois, John Pope benefited from a politically influential family. His father, Nathaniel Pope, a respected federal judge, fostered connections with significant figures like Abraham Lincoln. This background undoubtedly influenced Pope’s early career trajectory. He received a formal military education at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, graduating in 1842. His academic performance, ranking seventeenth in a class of fifty-six, secured him a coveted position in the Army Corps of Engineers. Among his West Point classmates were future Confederate General James Longstreet and Union General John Newton, highlighting the divisions that would soon emerge within the nation.
Pope’s early military service included action in the Mexican War. As a lieutenant of engineers, he participated in the Battle of Monterrey (1846) and served on General Zachary Taylor’s staff at the Battle of Buena Vista (1847). These experiences provided him with valuable battlefield exposure and contributed to his developing military acumen. In his personal life, John Pope married Clara P. Horton in 1859, daughter of Ohio Congressman Valentine B. Horton, further cementing his ties to the political landscape. Notably, Pope accompanied President-elect Abraham Lincoln on his inaugural train journey to Washington D.C. in February 1861, just prior to the outbreak of the Civil War, signaling his proximity to the burgeoning conflict and the incoming Union leadership.
John Pope and the Civil War Years (1861–1862)
John Pope’s ascent to brigadier general of volunteers in June 1861 was partly fueled by his political connections, a common practice in the early Civil War. Assigned to the Western Theater, Pope initially displayed competence but also a tendency towards friction, openly undermining his superior officer, General John C. Frémont. When Frémont was dismissed by Lincoln for his unauthorized emancipation proclamation, the Department of the Missouri was reorganized under Major General Henry W. Halleck, who then tasked Pope with a crucial expedition.
Pope was assigned to capture Confederate strongholds at New Madrid, Missouri, and Island Number Ten, strategically important locations along the Mississippi River. In a campaign that showcased his military capabilities, John Pope achieved a resounding success. He skillfully captured both locations, taking approximately 5,000 Confederate prisoners while suffering minimal losses himself. This victory was followed by his participation in the siege and capture of Corinth, Mississippi, as head of the Army of the Mississippi. Pope’s aggressive approach garnered praise from both the army and the press. However, his assertive style and successes also seemed to irritate the more cautious General Halleck.
Following the Union’s disappointing Peninsula Campaign under General George B. McClellan in June 1862, President Lincoln sought a change in command and summoned John Pope to the East. Pope approached this transfer with apprehension. He was leaving behind a comfortable command structure in the West and held a low opinion of many Eastern officers, particularly McClellan and Fitz-John Porter. Despite his reservations, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton informed Pope of his command of a significant Union force in the East. Pope expressed his unease, feeling like “the strange dog, without even the right to run out of the village.”
Upon arriving in Washington in June 1862, John Pope took command of the newly formed Army of Virginia. This army was composed of three corps that had previously struggled against Confederate General Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley Campaign. Compounding the challenges, Pope harbored negative views of his corps commanders, further straining the command atmosphere. His appointment and subsequent pronouncements were met with open hostility. A particularly damaging proclamation, perceived as insulting to Eastern soldiers while boasting of his own capabilities, further alienated his officers. Fitz-John Porter famously quipped that “Pope could not quote the Ten Commandments without getting ten falsehoods out of them,” encapsulating the widespread disdain for the new commander.
The Lincoln administration’s decision to appoint John Pope reflected a shift towards a more aggressive war policy. Dissatisfied with McClellan’s cautious and conciliatory approach, the administration sought a commander who would pursue a more forceful strategy aimed at decisively defeating and punishing the Confederacy. Pope’s appointment was a strategic move to implement these “hard-war” policies without directly confronting the politically influential McClellan.
Pope’s hardline approach was evident in his General Orders No. 5 and No. 7. These orders, directing the Army of Virginia to “subsist upon the country” and holding civilians accountable for guerrilla attacks, were perceived by Confederates as violations of the established rules of war. Robert E. Lee famously labeled John Pope a “miscreant” in response to these policies, highlighting the escalating animosity and the increasingly brutal nature of the conflict.
The Second Manassas Campaign and John Pope’s Defeat
John Pope’s campaign in Virginia was defined by two primary objectives: safeguarding the Shenandoah Valley and Washington D.C., and diverting Confederate forces away from McClellan’s Army of the Potomac, which was then withdrawing from the Virginia Peninsula. However, Confederate General Robert E. Lee, having successfully repelled McClellan’s advance on Richmond during the Seven Days’ Battles, aimed to prevent the Union armies of Pope and McClellan from uniting. Lee dispatched Stonewall Jackson to confront Pope’s forces near Culpeper, leading to the Battle of Cedar Mountain on August 9, an inconclusive engagement that set the stage for further conflict.
After a period of maneuvering along the Rappahannock River, Lee orchestrated a daring flanking maneuver, sending Jackson deep into Pope’s rear. On August 27, Jackson’s forces struck and destroyed the Union supply depot at Manassas Junction, a decisive blow that forced John Pope to abandon his defensive line and concentrate his army against Jackson. The two armies converged near the site of the First Battle of Manassas (Bull Run), setting the stage for the Second Battle of Manassas.
The Battle of Second Manassas unfolded over several days, marked by miscommunication and missed opportunities on the Union side. On August 28, initial clashes occurred at Brawner’s Farm. The following day, John Pope launched a series of poorly coordinated assaults against Jackson’s entrenched positions, all of which were repulsed. Later that afternoon, Pope ordered General Fitz-John Porter to attack Jackson’s right flank. However, due to a combination of factors, including unclear orders and Porter’s own reservations about Pope’s strategy, the attack never materialized effectively, and the day ended in a stalemate.
On August 30, John Pope, still believing Jackson was isolated, renewed his orders for Porter to attack. Again, the attack faltered. Unbeknownst to Pope, General James Longstreet and the rest of Lee’s army had arrived on the battlefield the previous night. Lee launched a devastating counterattack led by Longstreet, shattering Pope’s army and inflicting a significant defeat. While Pope managed to prevent a complete rout at the Battle of Chantilly on September 1, the Second Manassas campaign was a resounding Confederate victory and a major setback for the Union.
In the aftermath of the defeat, John Pope was relieved of command on September 6, 1862. He was reassigned to the Department of the Northwest, tasked with suppressing the Sioux Indian uprising in Minnesota. Seeking to deflect blame for the Second Manassas debacle, Pope accused Fitz-John Porter of disobedience and insubordination, leading to Porter’s court-martial and dismissal from the army. The controversy surrounding Porter’s actions and Pope’s role in his downfall persisted for years, with Porter continuously seeking exoneration. In 1879, an Army Board of Inquiry ultimately concluded that Porter had been unjustly convicted, further tarnishing John Pope’s legacy regarding the Second Manassas campaign.
John Pope’s Service on the Western Plains
Despite the setbacks in the East, John Pope continued his military career in the West. During 1863 and 1864, he directed further operations against the Sioux, and by 1865, he had become recognized as the U.S. Army’s leading expert on Indian affairs. In February 1865, General Ulysses S. Grant reassigned him to command the Military Division of the Missouri, a vast and strategically important command encompassing a significant portion of the western United States.
In 1867, John Pope was appointed governor of the Reconstruction Third Military District, overseeing Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. In this role, he strongly advocated for the voting rights of African Americans, demonstrating a commitment to the principles of Reconstruction. Following a brief assignment as commander of the Department of the Lakes in Detroit, Michigan, Pope returned to the Western Plains. From 1869 to 1883, he commanded the Department of the Missouri, playing a key role in the westward expansion and the conflicts with Native American tribes. He was instrumental in planning and executing the Red River War (1874–1875), which effectively subdued the Southern Plains tribes. While advocating for a firm approach to subjugation, John Pope also expressed the view that white encroachment was the root cause of Indian unrest and argued for humane treatment of tribes once they were under U.S. control.
Later Years and Legacy of John Pope
After an extensive military career spanning forty-four years, John Pope retired as a major general in the Regular Army on March 16, 1886. Two years after his retirement, his wife Clara Pope passed away. In his later years, Pope turned to writing, penning his memoirs for the National Tribune, which serialized them between 1887 and 1891. His writing revealed a complex perspective on his career, marked by both forgiveness and sharp criticism of his rivals, particularly McClellan, whom he famously described as someone who “admired himself only, and could never bear a rival near that shrine.”
John Pope died in his sleep on September 23, 1892, at the Ohio Soldiers and Sailors Home in Sandusky, Ohio. He was buried alongside his wife in Bellefontaine Cemetery in Saint Louis, Missouri. In their obituary, the editors of the Army and Navy Journal offered a balanced assessment of his career: “Military critics may dispute as to General Pope’s capacity as a general in command of armies in the field,” they acknowledged, yet emphasized, “None, however, can deny that he was a faithful servant of his country … deserving [of] … a place in the hearts of his countrymen with those whose ultimate success made them foremost of the leaders of their time.” This encapsulates the enduringly complex and debated legacy of John Pope, a figure who experienced both notable successes and significant failures throughout his career, leaving behind a mixed but undeniable impact on American military history.
