John Greenleaf Whittier stands as a towering figure in 19th-century American literature and history. More than just a poet, he was a powerful moral voice and a dedicated activist in the tumultuous era of abolitionism. For over three decades, Whittier channeled his passions into verse and political action, becoming one of the most ardent reformers of his time. His commitment to ending slavery was matched only by his deep-seated belief in tolerance, a principle forged in the crucible of his Quaker heritage and the historical persecutions endured by his ancestors. While his life was marked by significant moral, political, and even physical conflicts, it is his poetry – particularly his finest works – that secures his lasting legacy.
Whittier achieved considerable fame during the latter half of the 19th century, earning a place among the esteemed “Schoolroom Poets,” a group that included literary giants like William Cullen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, James Russell Lowell, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Although Whittier himself acknowledged that some of his abolitionist poetry was hastily written for immediate political purposes, his collected works contain a remarkable core of enduring literary merit. At the pinnacle of his achievements stands Snow-Bound: A Winter Idyl (1866), a masterpiece that lovingly recreates the essence of rural New England life. This iconic poem, alongside others such as “Telling the Bees,” “Ichabod,” “Massachusetts to Virginia,” “Skipper Ireson’s Ride,” “The Rendition,” and “The Double-Headed Snake of Newbury,” not only highlights Whittier’s New England roots but also underscores the profound influence of folk traditions on his imaginative landscape.
Early Life and Influences: Rooted in Rural New England
John Greenleaf Whittier’s identity was inextricably linked to the values, history, and folklore of rural Essex County, Massachusetts. Born on December 17, 1807, near Haverhill, Massachusetts, he spent his formative years in a farmhouse built by his great-great-grandfather in the 17th century. His upbringing was humble yet respectable, characterized by the values of hard work, Quaker piety, and strong familial bonds. This Quaker background instilled in him a deep sense of morality, justice, and pacifism, principles that would profoundly shape his life and work.
Beyond his immediate family and Quaker community, Whittier was immersed in the rich tapestry of local folklore. Winter evenings were filled with captivating tales of witches and ghosts, fueling his young imagination and sparking a lifelong fascination with storytelling. However, it was his encounter with the poetry of Robert Burns, the celebrated Scottish poet, that ignited his own literary aspirations. Burns’ ability to find beauty and significance in the ordinary aspects of rural life resonated deeply with Whittier, inspiring him to become a poet who could similarly capture the essence of his own New England environment.
Early Career and Journalism: Politics and Polemics
In 1829, at the age of 22, John Greenleaf Whittier faced a crossroads. Physically frail and lacking formal education beyond a year at Haverhill Academy, he felt uncertain about his future as a poet. However, an opportunity arose when he was offered the editorship of The American Manufacturer, a political weekly in Boston. This position was secured for him by William Lloyd Garrison, a fellow young editor who was just beginning his own influential career as an abolitionist. For Whittier, journalism was initially a means to pursue his passion for writing.
However, his experience in the world of newspapers quickly shifted his focus towards politics and polemics. His editorials in The American Manufacturer and later in the Hartford, Connecticut, New England Review, were characterized by their strong opinions. He fiercely criticized Democrat Andrew Jackson while enthusiastically supporting Whig leader Henry Clay. This early foray into political journalism honed his skills in persuasive writing and public discourse, laying the groundwork for his future role as a prominent voice in the abolitionist movement.
Emergence as an Abolitionist: A Moral Awakening
Despite his growing involvement in politics, Whittier’s literary ambitions remained. In February 1831, while in Hartford, he published Legends of New-England, a collection of tales and poems inspired by local folklore. Although this early work received little attention at the time and was later suppressed by Whittier himself, it is now recognized as a significant early attempt to explore New England folklore in literature, predating some of the themes later explored by Nathaniel Hawthorne.
By the end of 1831, ill health forced Whittier to return to his family home in Haverhill. This period of convalescence became a time of introspection and vocational discernment. While poetry offered little financial security, his involvement in politics and public support for Clay had raised his profile in Massachusetts. The pivotal moment arrived on March 22, 1833, when he received a letter from Garrison, who had by then launched his abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator. Garrison passionately urged Whittier to join the burgeoning fight against slavery, recognizing his talents and influence as invaluable to the cause.
Joining the abolitionist movement was a momentous decision for Whittier. He understood that aligning himself with such an unpopular cause in New England would likely extinguish any hopes of political office. It could also alienate him from influential literary circles and hinder his ability to publish poetry. However, Whittier’s conscience had been increasingly troubled by the injustice of slavery, and Garrison’s appeal solidified his commitment to active resistance.
Whittier’s response came in June 1833 with the privately printed pamphlet Justice and Expediency; or, Slavery Considered with a View to Its Rightful and Effectual Remedy, Abolition. This meticulously reasoned and well-documented work directly challenged the Colonization Society, a group supported by many churches that advocated sending Black Americans to Africa as a solution to slavery. Even though prominent figures like Clay endorsed the Colonization Society, Whittier saw it as an inadequate and unjust approach. Abolitionist groups quickly recognized the power of Whittier’s arguments, republishing and widely distributing his pamphlet. With this act, Whittier’s commitment to abolitionism was firmly established, marking a turning point where he dedicated his “rustic reed of song” to the “war with wrong.”
Political Activism and Poetry: Abolitionism in Verse and Action
Based on the impact of his pamphlet and his association with Garrison, Whittier was selected as a delegate to the Philadelphia convention that founded the American Anti-Slavery Society in December 1833. This decision was a defining moment in his life, and despite the personal and professional sacrifices it entailed, he never regretted his unwavering stance. He famously declared that he valued his signature on the Anti-Slavery Declaration of 1833 more than any literary accolade.
Although his national political ambitions were curtailed by his abolitionist stance, Whittier successfully won a seat in the Massachusetts state legislature in 1835, representing his home district of Haverhill. In the legislature, he became a vocal and effective advocate for his cause. He swayed public opinion on slavery, presented petitions to Congress, and championed legislative efforts such as a bill for jury trials in cases involving fugitive slaves. He even spoke out against the death penalty. However, his intense workload took a toll on his health, and he served only one term.
Despite leaving formal politics, Whittier continued to fight against slavery through his writing. He published abolitionist poems in The Liberator and edited the Essex Gazette, using both platforms to amplify his message. However, his outspokenness faced growing opposition. He was forced to resign from the Essex Gazette for deviating from the Whig party line, and in September 1835, he faced threats of violence from a mob in Concord, New Hampshire.
Literary Development and Regional Themes: Expanding Poetic Horizons
In 1836, Whittier made a significant life change, selling the family farm and moving with his mother and sister to Amesbury, Massachusetts, to be closer to the Quaker meetinghouse. However, his activism kept him frequently away from home. In 1837, he worked in the New York office of the Anti-Slavery Society, organizing a national petition campaign. The following year, he relocated to Philadelphia to edit the Pennsylvania Freeman, transforming it into a powerful voice for abolitionism. During this period, he collaborated with leading abolitionists, including Garrison, the Grimké sisters, Lydia Maria Child, and John Quincy Adams.
1837 also marked the unauthorized publication of Whittier’s first poetry collection, Poems Written During the Progress of the Abolition Question in the United States, Between the Years 1830 and 1838. In 1838, Whittier authorized an expanded and corrected edition titled Poems, published in Philadelphia. These collections showcased his passionate and often confrontational abolitionist verse, including poems like “Clerical Oppressors,” which denounced the hypocrisy of pro-slavery clergy. In poems such as “Stanzas” (later known as “Expostulation”), he starkly contrasted America’s commitment to slavery with its proclaimed dedication to freedom. These poems served as potent propaganda, effectively conveying the moral urgency of the abolitionist cause.
By the late 1830s, divisions emerged within the abolitionist movement. Whittier belonged to a faction that favored political action within the existing system to achieve change and preserve the Union. Others, like Garrison, prioritized abolition above the Union and questioned the U.S. Constitution itself. While Garrison focused on moral persuasion, Whittier actively participated in organizing the Liberty Party, a political party dedicated to abolition. He returned to Amesbury in 1840 but remained deeply involved in political activism, supporting Liberty Party candidates and other politicians who advocated for emancipation.
In 1843, Whittier’s Lays of My Home, and Other Poems signaled a shift back towards regional themes in his poetry. This collection included poems like “The Merrimack,” celebrating local landscapes; “The Ballad of Cassandra Southwick,” exploring New England history; and “The Funeral Tree of the Sokokis,” drawing on Native American folklore. These poems, while seemingly distinct from his abolitionist verse, shared a common thread of tolerance and brotherhood. Furthermore, Whittier often invoked New England pride as a foundation for his antislavery arguments, exemplified in his powerful poem “Massachusetts to Virginia,” first published in this volume. After the intense activism and internal conflicts of the 1830s, Whittier found a more balanced approach in the following decades, harmonizing his commitments to both poetry and social reform.
Mature Poetic Voice and National Recognition: Beyond Abolitionist Verse
In 1846, Whittier published his final collection explicitly dedicated to antislavery themes, Voices of Freedom. The following year, he released The Supernaturalism of New England, a collection of prose sketches. However, a critical review by Hawthorne, who questioned Whittier’s affinity for Gothic themes, may have contributed to Whittier’s decision to later suppress this book. In the same year, he became a contributing editor to The National Era, a Washington-based antislavery journal that became his primary publishing venue for the next decade, until the launch of The Atlantic Monthly. One of Whittier’s most significant works published in The National Era was Leaves from Margaret Smith’s Journal in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. 1678-9 (later published as a book in 1849). This historical novel, Whittier’s only foray into the genre, is presented as letters and diary entries of a 17th-century New England Quaker woman, Margaret Smith. The narrative is engaging and realistic, and the character of Margaret is considered a pioneering portrayal of a native heroine.
The year 1850 brought a significant political disappointment. Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster, previously seen as sympathetic to abolitionist causes, declared his support for compromise with pro-slavery Southern interests. Deeply dismayed by this perceived betrayal, Whittier responded with the powerful and poignant poem “Ichabod.” This poem, considered one of his finest, expresses grief and disappointment while acknowledging the universal human capacity for error and decline, even in great figures.
Meanwhile, Whittier played a crucial role in encouraging Charles Sumner to run for Senate. Whittier’s efforts and guidance were instrumental in Sumner’s election, and Sumner went on to become a leading voice against slavery in Washington.
Whittier’s poetry collections were now being published regularly by Ticknor, Reed, and Fields (later Houghton, Mifflin) in Boston. However, sales remained modest. Songs of Labor and Other Poems appeared in 1850, featuring “Ichabod,” “Calef at Boston,” and the titular series of poems celebrating various occupations. The Chapel of the Hermits and Other Poems followed in 1853, and The Panorama and Other Poems in 1856. This last volume included the widely beloved poem “The Barefoot Boy,” a nostalgic and sentimental tribute to the carefree childhood of New England. It also contained the strong antislavery poem “The Haschich.”
“The Atlantic Monthly” and Literary Establishment: A New Phase
A turning point in Whittier’s career came in 1857 with the founding of The Atlantic Monthly. This prestigious literary magazine provided him with a regular platform alongside the most prominent writers of New England. His contributions to early issues, including “Skipper Ireson’s Ride” and “Telling the Bees,” are considered among his best poems. Symbolizing his acceptance into the Boston literary establishment was the publication of the “Blue and Gold Edition” of his poetry in 1857, mirroring the format of Longfellow’s popular editions. Towards the end of the year, Whittier’s mother passed away, and the poet turned 50, marking a period of personal and professional transition.
The poetry of this period reflects Whittier’s gradual shift away from overtly political themes. He increasingly focused on personal and nostalgic subjects, as seen in the autobiographical poems “Telling the Bees” and “My Playmate.” He also explored historical and legendary themes related to New England, producing notable ballads such as “Skipper Ireson’s Ride,” “The Garrison of Cape Ann,” “The Prophecy of Samuel Sewall,” “The Double-Headed Snake of Newbury,” and “The Swan Song of Parson Avery.” These poems were collected in Home Ballads and Poems (1860). The only significant reference to the looming Civil War in this volume was “Brown of Ossawatomie,” a poem inspired by John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry.
Post-Civil War Era and Later Works: Reflection and Remembrance
Whittier’s Quaker pacifism did not prevent him from passionately supporting the Union cause during the Civil War. He admired President Abraham Lincoln and proudly voted for him in both 1860 and 1864. Whittier penned numerous patriotic poems during the war, with “Barbara Frietchie” becoming particularly famous. In War Time and Other Poems (1864) included both public poems like “Thy Will Be Done” and “Ein Feste Berg…” and more personal “home ballads.” This volume was republished in 1865 as National Lyrics, including “Laus Deo,” a poem celebrating the abolition of slavery, a moment Whittier had long anticipated.
With the end of the Civil War and the ratification of the 13th Amendment, Whittier’s public activism entered a new phase. This coincided with the personal loss of his sister Elizabeth the previous year, leading to a period of reflection and remembrance. He began working on Snow-Bound, the “Yankee pastoral” he had promised to The Atlantic Monthly.
Snow-Bound vividly recreates a winter storm at the old Whittier homestead during his childhood. The poem portrays a world transformed by snow, isolating the family but also drawing them closer together around the hearth fire, a symbol of warmth, life, and familial love. Through detailed descriptions of rural New England life in the early 19th century – the books, the schoolmaster, the sounds of winter, the importance of news, and the connection to nature – Whittier evokes a vanished world. The poem’s emotional power lies in its elegiac tone, as Whittier remembers loved ones who have passed away, using memory as a light against loss. Snow-Bound became Whittier’s greatest artistic and commercial success, bringing him financial security and solidifying his literary reputation.
The Tent on the Beach and Other Poems (1867) continued his success, selling rapidly. This volume included poems like “The Wreck of the Rivermouth,” “The Changeling,” “The Dead Ship of Harpswell,” and “Abraham Davenport,” further demonstrating his enduring interest in New England legends and history. Poems like “The Eternal Goodness” and “Our Master” highlighted the increasing importance of liberal Quaker religious thought in his later poetry. Whittier became a proponent of religious liberalization, hoping to move beyond what he saw as the rigid aspects of Puritanism. Oliver Wendell Holmes recognized Whittier’s contribution to “humanizing” Calvinist theology in America, comparing it to Robert Burns’ impact in Scotland. Whittier’s 1871 edition of The Journal of John Woolman further promoted Quaker spirituality.
Whittier spent his remaining years quietly in Amesbury and, after 1876, at his home in Danvers, Massachusetts, called Oak Knoll. He continued to write, exploring themes of rural life, history, and spirituality. Among the Hills and Other Poems (1869) depicted the more somber aspects of rural New England life. The Pennsylvania Pilgrim, and Other Poems (1872) included a narrative poem about Francis Daniel Pastorius, an early Quaker antislavery advocate, and the hymn “Dear Lord and Father of Mankind.” The Vision of Echard, and Other Poems (1878) contained poems like “The Witch of Wenham” and “The Henchman.” His final collection, At Sundown, was privately printed in 1890 and publicly released posthumously after his death on September 7, 1892. His last poem was a tribute to Oliver Wendell Holmes.
Legacy and Critical Reassessment: Enduring Relevance
At the time of his death, John Greenleaf Whittier was widely celebrated and revered. His birthdays were public occasions, marked by celebrations across New England and beyond. He was seen as a public poet, connecting with a broad American audience through his moral tone, heroic themes, and comforting optimism. Popular poems like “The Barefoot Boy” and “Barbara Frietchie,” while cherished by his contemporaries, have been viewed by modern readers as sentimental. A reaction against Victorian sentimentality in the early 20th century led to a decline in Whittier’s critical reputation.
However, contemporary literary criticism is re-evaluating Whittier’s work, particularly in light of renewed interest in sentimental and local-color traditions, especially in the writings of his female contemporaries. Poems like “A Sabbath Scene” reveal Whittier’s awareness of gender issues and share aesthetic similarities with Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. His Quaker belief in gender equality fostered friendships with numerous women writers, including Harriet Prescott Spofford, Celia Thaxter, the Cary sisters, Rose Terry Cooke, Lucy Larcom, Gail Hamilton, Ina Coolbrith, Annie Fields, and Sarah Orne Jewett. Their admiration for Whittier suggests a shared sensibility and artistic kinship.
John Greenleaf Whittier’s legacy extends beyond his literary achievements. He was a significant moral and political figure who used his voice to champion social justice and equality. His poetry, rooted in the landscapes and values of New England, continues to resonate with readers interested in American history, Quakerism, and the enduring power of verse to inspire social change. While critical perspectives may evolve, John Greenleaf Whittier remains an important voice in American literature, worthy of continued reading and study.
