The recent dedication of the National World War I Memorial at Pershing Park, near the White House, has brought renewed focus to a pivotal figure in American military history: General John J. “Black Jack” Pershing. Commander of the American Expeditionary Force (A.E.F.) during World War I, Pershing’s career was extensive and impactful even before he led American forces onto the battlefields of Europe.
From Humble Beginnings to Military Acclaim
While not born in a log cabin as the saying goes, John J. Pershing’s origins were indeed modest. Born on September 13, 1860, in Laclede, Missouri, his father worked as a foreman for the Hannibal & St. Louis railroad. Pershing spent his early years in a simple home, a far cry from the grandeur he would later command.
In his late teens, Pershing demonstrated a commitment to education and service by taking a position as a teacher in a school for African-American children. This was a challenging role in a racially divided society, and Pershing faced down local bullies who attempted to intimidate him for his work. His resilience and determination were evident even then. During the summers, he furthered his own education at Kirkville Normal School, earning an A.B. degree in 1880.
A turning point arrived when Pershing encountered an advertisement for West Point, seeking “honest, strong, God-fearing boys.” Drawn to the opportunity for structure and advancement, he took the entrance exams and achieved “top honors.” In 1882, he began his journey at the prestigious United States Military Academy, a decision that would shape not only his life but also the course of American military history.
Graduating in 1886, ranked 30th in a class of 77, Pershing’s first assignment was at Fort Bayard, New Mexico. This posting included commanding a unit of African-American cavalry, the famed “buffalo soldiers,” as a 1st lieutenant. It is speculated that his association with these troops contributed to his famous nickname, “Black Jack” Pershing, though another theory suggests it was a common army term for a strict disciplinarian, a trait Pershing was known to possess.
Later in his career, Pershing returned to West Point as an instructor, imparting his knowledge and discipline to future generations of officers. He served in Cuba during the Spanish-American War in 1898, earning a promotion to Captain. In 1899, he was deployed to the Philippines to quell revolts by the Moro people, further demonstrating his leadership in challenging and complex environments.
A significant moment in his ascent came in September 1904 when President Theodore Roosevelt, recognizing Pershing’s exceptional qualities, appointed him Brigadier General. This promotion was particularly noteworthy as it placed Pershing ahead of 862 more senior officers, a testament to his recognized potential and Roosevelt’s confidence in him. By 1914, Pershing was stationed on the Mexican border, and in 1916 and 1917, he led expeditions into Mexico in a fruitless pursuit of Pancho Villa, who had been conducting raids into American territory. This experience in command and border conflict further prepared him for the immense challenges that lay ahead.
Leading the American Expeditionary Force in World War I
Shortly before the United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, Pershing was promoted to Major General. In a move mirroring his earlier brigadier general appointment, he was chosen to command the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), again surpassing five other Major Generals. Landing in Boulogne, France, on June 13, 1917, General John Pershing was met with an enthusiastic welcome. His arrival in Paris was a spectacle, with tens of thousands of Parisians lining the streets, waving American flags, and chanting “Vive l’Amerique!” – a clear indication of the hope and anticipation that accompanied the arrival of American forces.
At this juncture, the American military was comparatively small and largely inexperienced, a consequence of years of underfunding and neglect. Transforming it into a formidable, professional army capable of engaging in a major global conflict would be a monumental undertaking, requiring time, resources, and strategic leadership.
Compounding the challenge was a critical shift on the Eastern Front. Germany’s victory over Russia and the subsequent Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in January 1918 allowed Germany to consolidate its gains in Eastern Europe, effectively creating a vast empire stretching almost to Moscow. This victory freed up a substantial number of seasoned German troops for deployment to the Western Front, significantly intensifying pressure on the already strained Allied forces.
The critical question became whether the Allied forces, exhausted after three years of brutal warfare, could withstand the renewed German onslaught until the American forces could be effectively deployed in sufficient numbers to tip the balance. The German Spring Offensive indeed pushed the Allied lines back perilously close to Paris, within approximately 50 miles, but the Allied defenses, though battered, held.
Understandably, the British, French, and other Allied nations were desperate to integrate American soldiers into their depleted ranks as quickly as possible. They advocated for the immediate incorporation of American troops into existing Allied units. However, General Pershing resolutely insisted on maintaining the integrity of the AEF as a distinct and unified fighting force under American command. This stance, while strategically sound in the long term, caused friction and delays, even leading to heated disagreements with Allied leaders. Pershing understood the importance of American identity and command structure for the long-term effectiveness and national pride associated with the AEF.
When the AEF finally entered combat as a cohesive unit, it proved to be a decisive factor. American forces played crucial roles in turning the tide of the war at key battles such as Cantigny, Chateau-Thierry, St. Mihiel, and Meuse-Argonne. By mid-1918, the German government faced the daunting reality of two million American soldiers already in the Allied lines, with another two million on their way. The sheer scale of American commitment and the fresh energy of these troops significantly undermined German morale and warfighting capacity.
Faced with this overwhelming influx of American power and the sustained Allied resistance, Germany recognized the futility of continuing the war. An armistice was agreed upon, and on November 11, 1918, fighting ceased. This day became known as Armistice Day, later becoming a federal holiday in the United States in 1938, and eventually evolving into Veterans Day in 1954. General John Pershing’s leadership was instrumental in bringing about this Allied victory and the end of World War I.
Post-War Years and Legacy
The immediate aftermath of World War I presented what is often considered a controversial period in General Pershing’s career. Believing that lasting peace required a decisive defeat of Germany, Pershing advocated for the continuation of the war until Germany was fully occupied. His concern was that without a clear and demonstrable defeat, the German populace might not fully accept their loss, potentially sowing the seeds for future conflict.
His fears were, to some extent, realized in the interwar period. The myth of the “stab in the back” emerged in Germany, propagated by nationalist and right-wing groups, claiming that Germany had not been militarily defeated but betrayed by the new Weimar Republic. This false narrative became a potent rallying cry for demagogues like Adolf Hitler, contributing to the rise of extremism and ultimately, World War II.
Despite the armistice being declared on November 11th, Pershing, adhering to his belief in complete victory, controversially ordered his men to continue fighting on that very day, resulting in approximately 3,500 additional and arguably avoidable casualties. This decision remains a point of debate and criticism in assessments of his leadership.
In the post-war years, Pershing lived a more reserved life, though he remained concerned about American military preparedness. He cautioned the Harding administration against drastic cuts to the armed forces, which reduced the military to a bare-bones level of 115,000 personnel. He presciently warned of the potential for future conflicts. In a 1922 interview with the New York Times, Pershing expressed his dismay that “the lessons of the war, to learn which we paid such a tremendous price…have seemingly gone unheeded by the people of our country.”
In 1939, as the shadow of another global conflict loomed, General John Pershing made a final visit to France, a poignant return to the battlefields where he had commanded American forces. He lived to witness the outbreak of World War II, the very war he had cautioned against through his warnings about military underpreparedness.
Today, General Pershing’s legacy is honored in Pershing Park in Washington, D.C. A statue of General John Pershing stands prominently, gazing towards the equestrian statue of General Sherman across the street, a lasting tribute to his significant contributions to the United States military and his leadership during a pivotal period in world history. His role in shaping the American military and leading the AEF to victory in World War I cements his place as a key figure in 20th-century history.
