John Charles Frémont, born on January 21, 1813, in Savannah, Georgia, and passing away on July 13, 1890, in New York, New York, was a pivotal figure in 19th-century America. Known as John C. Frémont, he was not only a distinguished American military officer but also a celebrated explorer and meticulous mapmaker of the American West. His expeditions were instrumental in opening up the vast western territories for settlement, playing a crucial role in the United States’ expansion and the development of California. Beyond his explorations, Fremont John Charles also ventured into politics, notably as the first presidential candidate for the newly established Republican Party in 1856.
Frémont’s early life took a turn when his French émigré father died when he was just six. His family relocated from Georgia to Charleston, South Carolina. In 1829, he enrolled at the College of Charleston, quickly demonstrating a remarkable talent for mathematics. Despite being expelled for inconsistent attendance, he was eventually awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1836. A significant opportunity arose in 1833 through Joel R. Poinsett, a prominent South Carolina politician, who secured Frémont a position teaching mathematics on the U.S. warship Natchez. This role involved a two-and-a-half-year cruise along the South American coast, broadening Frémont’s horizons. Upon his return, he contributed his skills as an assistant engineer for a railroad survey project connecting Charleston and Cincinnati, Ohio, further diversifying his experiences.
In 1838, Poinsett, then serving as the U.S. Secretary of War, commissioned Frémont as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army’s Corps of Topographical Engineers. This appointment placed him under the mentorship of French scientist Joseph Nicolas Nicollet for a comprehensive three-year mission. Their objective was to survey and map the upper reaches of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, critical waterways for American expansion. Frémont’s capabilities led him to head his own expedition in 1841, surveying the Des Moines River under Nicollet’s guidance. Nicollet imparted valuable knowledge in geology, topography, and astronomy, fueling Frémont’s burgeoning passion for wilderness exploration. This interest was further ignited by Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, a staunch advocate for westward expansion. Benton became Frémont’s mentor, supporter, and eventually, in 1841, his father-in-law. Benton’s political influence proved invaluable, enabling Frémont to undertake ambitious mapping projects across the vast territory stretching from the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific Ocean in the subsequent years.
Illustration of Pyramid Lake, northwestern Nevada, U.S., from the report on John C. Frémont
Illustration depicting Pyramid Lake in Nevada, as documented in John C. Frémont’s expedition report of 1843-44, showcasing the detailed observations of the American West.
As westward expansion gained momentum in 1842, particularly towards the Oregon Country in the Pacific Northwest, the War Department entrusted Frémont with a crucial expedition. His mission was to survey a viable route westward from the Mississippi River towards the Wyoming region. During this expedition, while charting the Wind River Range, Frémont achieved a notable feat by scaling a prominent peak, which was subsequently named Fremont Peak in his honor, a lasting geographical marker of his explorations. In 1843, accompanied by the renowned guide Kit Carson and mountain man Thomas Fitzpatrick, Frémont embarked on an even more significant surveying endeavor, reaching the mouth of the Columbia River. This expedition involved extensive exploration of the Pacific Northwest. Venturing southward, he entered Mexican-controlled territories, traversing what is now northwestern Nevada. The expedition then faced a perilous winter crossing of the Sierra Nevada to reach California, arriving at Fort Sutter on the Sacramento River in March 1844. Frémont’s detailed report of this journey, highlighting this daring exploit, significantly amplified his public acclaim and solidified his reputation as a fearless explorer.
Engraving of John C. Frémont, based on a daguerreotype by Mathew Brady around 1850, capturing the likeness of the famous explorer and politician.
The annexation of Texas heightened tensions and made war between the United States and Mexico increasingly likely. In the spring of 1845, Frémont led a third expedition westward, ostensibly to explore the Great Basin and the Pacific coast. However, this mission also carried secret instructions related to potential military actions in case of war. By the end of the year, Frémont and his armed group arrived in southern California. A confrontation with Mexican authorities ensued, which Frémont initially escalated before retreating north into southern Oregon. In early May 1846, he and his party returned south to California after receiving a dispatch from Washington, D.C., the contents of which remain a subject of historical intrigue. Back in California, Frémont actively supported a group of American settlers near Sonoma who initiated the Bear Flag Revolt, an uprising that briefly established the Bear Flag Republic. Upon receiving news of the U.S. declaration of war against Mexico, Commodore Robert F. Stockton appointed Frémont as a major, leading a battalion of American volunteers. Together, Frémont and Stockton played a crucial role in securing California for the United States.
Following the conquest, General Stephen Watts Kearny arrived in California with orders to establish a formal government, leading to a conflict in authority. Frémont, having accepted the capitulation of California from Mexican officials at Cahuenga Pass near Los Angeles, found himself at the center of this dispute. Stockton had appointed Frémont as military governor of California, a decision Kearny contested. Despite the dispute, Frémont served as governor for two months before Kearny, having solidified his authority, ordered Frémont’s arrest. Frémont was subsequently court-martialed in 1847–48 on charges of mutiny, disobedience, and conduct unbecoming an officer. He was found guilty and sentenced to dismissal from the army. Although President James K. Polk overturned the dismissal, Frémont, feeling deeply wronged, resigned from the military. Despite this controversy, he maintained considerable public admiration.
American presidential election, 1856
A graphic illustrating the results of the 1856 American presidential election, highlighting the division of votes, parties, and candidates in this pivotal election.
Frémont’s return to California led him to his estate in the Sierra Nevada foothills near Mariposa. He soon found himself amidst the California Gold Rush. The discovery of rich gold deposits on his land transformed him into a multimillionaire. In 1850, with California’s entry into the Union, Frémont was elected as one of its first senators. A staunch opponent of slavery, he lost his bid for reelection in 1851 to a pro-slavery candidate. However, his significant contributions to securing California and the publicity from another expedition to Utah Territory in 1853–54 boosted his national profile. This popularity led to his nomination for president in 1856 by the newly formed Republican Party. In the election, he was defeated by Democrat James Buchanan but achieved a remarkable feat in uniting Northern and Western voters against the South to a greater extent than any prior candidate.
At the outset of the American Civil War, Frémont was appointed a major general of Union troops in Missouri. However, his military leadership proved ineffective. Adding to controversy, in August 1861, he issued an order to confiscate property from Missourians in rebellion and emancipate the state’s slaves. President Abraham Lincoln, concerned about the premature nature of these actions and their potential to alienate border states, relieved Frémont of his command shortly after. In 1862, Frémont was given command of another army in the Appalachian region. He again struggled against Confederate General Thomas (“Stonewall”) Jackson’s tactical maneuvers. After losing his command to rival John Pope, Frémont resigned from the military once more, marked by disillusionment. Despite his military setbacks, his public appeal remained strong enough for consideration as a presidential candidate in 1864 by the radical Republicans. Ultimately, he withdrew his candidacy to prevent division within the party, which could have jeopardized Lincoln’s reelection. Following this, Frémont retired from public life, dedicating his efforts to railroad projects in the West. After financial setbacks led to the loss of his fortune, he was appointed governor of the Arizona Territory in 1878, serving until 1883, concluding a life of diverse and impactful contributions to American history.
