John Brown remains one of the most debated figures in American history, particularly in the lead up to the Civil War. To understand his controversial legacy, it’s crucial to examine “What Did John Brown Do” that sparked such intense reactions and continues to provoke discussion today. Was he a heroic abolitionist, a radical terrorist, or something in between? This exploration delves into the key events of his life to unpack the actions that cemented his place in history.
Born in 1800, John Brown’s early life was steeped in a fervent anti-slavery sentiment. His family, devout Congregationalists with Puritan roots, instilled in him a deep moral opposition to slavery. Growing up in Ohio’s Western Reserve, a region populated by New Englanders, he was surrounded by abolitionist ideals. His father’s active involvement in the anti-slavery movement and support for racially integrated education at Oberlin College further shaped Brown’s worldview. Though lacking formal education himself, this environment laid the groundwork for his future actions.
John Brown in an older portrait. Southerners viewed him as the embodiment of their deepest anxieties about abolitionism, while many Northerners saw him as a righteous figure.
Despite his strong moral convictions, Brown initially pursued a life of business. He tried his hand as a tanner, a postmaster, a sheep rancher, and even a suburban developer. However, he consistently faced financial hardship, marked by bankruptcies and struggles to maintain economic stability. These failures seemed to coincide with a growing radicalization of his anti-slavery beliefs. While he participated in the Underground Railroad and helped found the League of Gileadites to protect fugitive slaves, it wasn’t until the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 that his actions took a dramatic turn. This act, which allowed for the potential expansion of slavery into new territories through popular sovereignty, propelled Brown to the forefront of the escalating conflict.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act ignited “Bleeding Kansas,” a period of intense violence between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers vying for control of the territory. John Brown and several of his sons moved to Kansas to ensure it became a free state. In response to the sacking of the free-soil town of Lawrence by pro-slavery forces in May 1856, Brown led a retaliatory raid at Pottawatomie Creek. On the night of May 24, 1856, Brown and a small band of men, including his sons, went to the homes of pro-slavery settlers and brutally killed five men with swords and knives.
John Brown in the 1850s, a period marked by business failures and increasing radicalization of his abolitionist views, leading him to Kansas.
The Pottawatomie massacre was a shocking act of violence that further inflamed tensions in Kansas and across the nation. While some abolitionists condemned the killings, others saw them as a justifiable response to pro-slavery aggression. Brown himself believed he was acting as an instrument of God’s will, delivering righteous justice against those who supported the immoral institution of slavery. It’s important to note that even in this violent act, Brown and his men spared women and children, and even some men they deemed not to be actively involved in pro-slavery violence. This selective targeting, while still brutal, distinguishes his actions from indiscriminate terrorism. The events in Kansas cemented Brown’s image as “Osawatomie Brown,” a fierce and uncompromising fighter against slavery, admired by some and reviled by others.
However, “what did John Brown do” that is most remembered is undoubtedly the Harpers Ferry raid in October 1859. Years before the raid, Brown had envisioned a grand scheme to strike a decisive blow against slavery in the South. His plan was to seize the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, arm enslaved people, and ignite a widespread rebellion that would ultimately dismantle slavery across the nation. He believed that enslaved people would flock to his banner once they heard of his actions, creating an unstoppable force for liberation.
In the lead-up to the raid, Brown secured financial backing from prominent abolitionists in the East, known as the “Secret Six,” and gathered a small band of followers. Frederick Douglass, though sharing Brown’s abolitionist goals, warned him against the Harpers Ferry plan, believing it to be a suicidal mission. Despite these warnings, Brown pressed forward, driven by his unwavering conviction.
On the night of October 16, 1859, John Brown and his band of 18 men, a mix of white and black abolitionists, launched their raid on Harpers Ferry. They successfully seized the armory and arsenal, but Brown’s grand plan quickly unraveled. Contrary to his expectations, enslaved people did not rise up en masse to join him. Instead, local militia and eventually U.S. Marines, under the command of Colonel Robert E. Lee, surrounded and overwhelmed Brown’s small force. Within two days, the raid was crushed. Ten of Brown’s men, including two of his sons, were killed, and Brown himself was captured.
John Brown’s trial in Charlestown, Virginia, where he was tried for treason, murder, and inciting slave rebellion. He was severely wounded and had to be carried into the courtroom.
Following his capture, John Brown was swiftly tried by the state of Virginia for treason, murder, and inciting slave rebellion. Despite being wounded during the raid and facing almost certain death, Brown used his trial as a platform to articulate his anti-slavery beliefs with unwavering conviction. His courtroom speeches, particularly his statement that he believed “to have interfered as I have done in behalf of His despised poor, is no wrong, but right,” deeply resonated with many in the North. He was found guilty and sentenced to death.
In the month between his sentencing and execution, Brown’s letters and pronouncements further solidified his image as a martyr in the eyes of many Northerners. His willingness to sacrifice his life for the cause of abolition elevated him to a Christ-like figure for some. Frederick Douglass famously stated, “I lived for the slave, but John Brown was willing to die for the slave.” John Brown was hanged on December 2, 1859.
The reaction to John Brown’s actions was deeply divided along sectional lines. For Southerners, he became the ultimate symbol of Northern aggression and the fear of slave insurrection. His raid intensified their anxieties about the future of slavery and contributed to the growing divide between North and South. Conversely, for many Northerners, particularly abolitionists, Brown became a martyr and a hero. While not all Northerners endorsed his violent methods, many admired his courage and commitment to ending slavery. His actions galvanized the abolitionist movement and further polarized the nation, pushing it closer to civil war.
John Brown’s provisional constitution for the revolutionary state he hoped to establish, demonstrating his detailed planning for a post-slavery society.
Was John Brown a terrorist? By modern definitions, and even by the standards of his time, Brown’s actions do not neatly fit the label of “terrorist.” Terrorism often involves indiscriminate violence against civilians to instill fear and achieve political goals. While Brown certainly employed violence and aimed to instill fear in slaveholders, his actions were more targeted and politically motivated within the context of the escalating conflict over slavery.
His Pottawatomie killings, while brutal, were directed at individuals perceived as active aggressors in the pro-slavery violence in Kansas. His Harpers Ferry raid, though intended to incite a slave rebellion, was aimed at a military target – the federal armory – and he took measures to protect his hostages. Unlike modern terrorists, Brown did not seek to maximize civilian casualties, and he openly identified himself and his cause.
Instead, John Brown can be more accurately described as a radical abolitionist, a guerrilla fighter, or even a revolutionary. He operated in a context of extreme political and social conflict, where peaceful means of change seemed increasingly impossible. In Kansas, he engaged in guerrilla warfare against pro-slavery forces in a territory where legitimate governance had broken down. At Harpers Ferry, he attempted to initiate a revolution against the institution of slavery, which he viewed as a profound moral evil.
In conclusion, “what did John Brown do” was a complex tapestry of actions driven by an unwavering commitment to abolition. From the violent acts in Bleeding Kansas to the audacious raid on Harpers Ferry, his life was marked by controversy and bloodshed. He was neither a simple hero nor a clear-cut terrorist. Instead, John Brown remains a divisive figure who embodies the deep moral and political conflicts that tore America apart in the mid-19th century. His legacy continues to be debated and reinterpreted, forcing us to confront the complexities of violence, justice, and the fight for freedom in American history.
Note on Sources
The very best discussion of Brown in Kansas is found in Robert E. McGlone, John Brown’s War Against Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
The quotation from Brown’s speech in court is from Life and Letters of John Brown, Liberator of Kansas, and Martyr of Virginia, ed. Franklin B. Sanborn (1885), p. 585. Quotations of Frederick Douglass and Brown are from Stephen B. Oates, To Purge This Land With Blood: A Biography of John Brown, 2nd ed. (Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press, 1984), p. 335. For more on Brown’s self-created martyrdom, see Paul Finkelman, His Soul Goes Marching On: Responses to John Brown and the Harpers Ferry Raid (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995), pp. 41–66.
For the conservative estimate of the number of political killings in Kansas, see Dale E. Watts, “How Bloody was Bleeding Kansas? Political Killings in the Kansas Territory, 1854–1861,” Kansas History, 18 (1995): 116–129.
John Andrew’s declaration that “John Brown himself is right” is quoted in Owald Garrison Villard, John Brown, 1800–1859: A Biography Fifty Years Later (New York Alfred A. Knopf, 1943), p. 557.
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John Brown’s grave at his family farm in North Elba, New York, which became a symbolic site for those who admired his fight against slavery.
