John Singer Sargent, an American artist who spent much of his life abroad, deeply desired for his most important creations to find a permanent home in his native country’s leading museum. In 1916, he offered one such significant work, a portrait of Madame Pierre Gautreau, to his friend Edward Robinson, the Director of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, at a surprisingly modest price. Sargent declared it “the best thing I have done,” yet he harbored a request stemming from past controversy: “By the way, I should prefer, on account of the row I had with the lady years ago, that the picture should not be called by her name.” Robinson respected his wish, and the painting entered the collection as Portrait of Madame X.
John Singer Sargent’s Madame X (Madame Pierre Gautreau), painted between 1883 and 1884, is a captivating oil on canvas, measuring 82 1/8 x 43 1/4 inches (208.6 x 109.9cm). It resides in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, acquired through the Arthur Hoppock Hearn Fund in 1916 (16.53). Sargent was intensely focused on capturing the striking and somewhat unconventional beauty of Madame Gautreau, an American expatriate from New Orleans who had married into Parisian high society. He famously described her as possessing the most exquisite silhouette and skin of a “uniform lavender or blotting-paper colour all over.” Rumors circulated about Madame Gautreau’s beauty regimen, suggesting she used henna to enhance her auburn hair and chlorate of potash powder to brighten her naturally pale complexion.
The Scandalous Debut at the Salon of 1884
Despite Sargent’s artistic intentions, the initial unveiling of Madame X at the Salon of 1884 sparked considerable outrage and became a social and artistic scandal. Letters and accounts from the time reveal that the painting underwent significant alterations by Sargent, but it wasn’t until 1995 that technical examinations, including X-radiography and infrared reflectography, brought to light the extent of these changes made before its Salon debut. X-radiographs of the artwork’s head region expose numerous refinements to Madame Gautreau’s profile, a notable repositioning of her ear, and modifications to the placement of her arms.
Sargent meticulously documented his work through photography, and a photograph of Madame X as it first appeared at the Salon became part of a gift from his sister to the Museum. However, the painting’s reception was far from favorable. The public and critics were taken aback, and as a contemporary observer noted, “There was a grand tapage (uproar) before it all day…I found him [Sargent] dodging behind doors to avoid friends who looked grave…I was disappointed in the colour. She looks decomposed. All the women jeer. Ah voilà ‘la belle!’ ‘Oh quell [sic] horreur!’ (“Oh there is ‘the beauty!’ Oh what a fright!”) etc….All the a.m. it was one series of bons mots, mauvaises plaisanteries (puns, bad jokes) and fierce discussion. John, poor boy, was navré (heartbroken).” The primary cause of the initial scandal was the painting’s original depiction of the right strap of Madame Gautreau’s dress, which had fallen off her shoulder, suggesting a provocative and overtly sexualized image for the conservative Salon audience.
Sargent’s Revisions and Artistic Evolution
Following the uproar, John Singer Sargent painstakingly reworked Madame X, seeking to salvage both his and Madame Gautreau’s reputation. An 1885 photograph of Sargent in his studio provides the earliest visual record of these alterations. Most conspicuously, Sargent repainted the right dress strap, restoring it to a more conventional, upright position on her shoulder. Subtler yet equally significant changes were made to the painting’s background. Early viewers of Sargent’s studio noted the palette was “blue, green, white and black.” Sargent himself expressed dissatisfaction with the background’s initial gloominess, writing to a friend that he “dashed a tone of light rose over the former gloomy background.” Evidence of this original, more vibrant color is still visible along the edges of the canvas, a hidden glimpse into the painting’s evolution. Ultimately, Sargent opted for the more muted, neutral background we see today.
While a 1995 study offered insights into the color changes, advancements in technology have since enabled a more detailed examination of these transformations. Scanning X-ray fluorescence (XRF) now allows for mapping the distribution of individual elements within the painting, revealing the pigments Sargent employed in different layers and revisions.
Unveiling Hidden Pigments with XRF Technology
Scanning X-ray fluorescence (XRF) has provided art conservators and scientists with unprecedented insights into John Singer Sargent’s techniques in Madame X. XRF mapping identifies the chemical elements present in the pigments, revealing Sargent’s palette choices and application methods across the canvas.
The XRF maps reveal the presence of key pigments: cobalt (Co) indicates the vibrant blue cerulean; chromium (Cr) signals viridian green; iron (Fe) points to earth pigments like ochres and umbers; calcium (Ca) suggests bone black and earth colors in the final background; and mercury (Hg) reveals the use of vermilion, a brilliant red. Surprisingly, the analysis uncovered extensive use of viridian green, a dark and translucent pigment, not only in Madame Gautreau’s seemingly black dress but also in her reddish-brown hair. Vermilion, despite its striking red hue, was used sparingly to tint the flesh tones. While traces of vermilion appear in areas like the eye, lips, and bodice, Sargent favored a more subtle transparent red lake pigment for the pale flesh of the chest and left arm, achieving a delicate and lifelike skin tone.
These advanced analyses of Madame X offer a profound appreciation for John Singer Sargent’s mastery of color and his intricate creative methodology. They illuminate the artist’s thought process, showcasing the numerous decisions behind each detail of the finished work. Madame X stands as a powerful testament to the layers of choices and revisions that contribute to a masterpiece, many of which remain unseen by the casual observer, yet are now revealed through the lens of modern scientific investigation.
