John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government stands as a cornerstone of classical liberalism and Western political thought. Written in the 17th century, amidst the tumultuous backdrop of English political upheaval, Locke’s work offers a profound exploration of the nature of legitimate government, individual rights, and the right to revolution. This treatise, deeply influential in shaping modern democracies, continues to be a subject of intense study and debate.
I. Locke’s State of Nature: Freedom and Natural Law
Locke begins by painting a picture of the “state of nature,” a hypothetical pre-political condition where individuals exist without government. Contrary to Thomas Hobbes’s depiction of a chaotic and brutal state of nature, Locke posits it as a state of perfect freedom and equality, governed by the law of nature.
A portrait of John Locke, the author of “Second Treatise of Government”, highlighting his intellectual contributions to political philosophy.
This law, accessible through reason, dictates that all individuals possess inherent rights, most notably the rights to life, liberty, and property. In Locke’s view, these are not granted by any ruler or state but are intrinsic to human beings by virtue of their existence as rational creatures of God. The state of nature, while not lawless, lacks an established authority to enforce this natural law, leading to potential inconveniences and insecurity.
The Inconveniences of the State of Nature
While the state of nature is governed by reason and natural rights, Locke acknowledges its limitations. He identifies three key deficiencies:
- Absence of Established Law: Although the law of nature is clear in principle, its interpretation can be subjective and biased in individual cases. A common, agreed-upon law is needed for clarity and consistent application.
- Lack of an Impartial Judge: In the state of nature, every individual is the judge and enforcer of natural law. Self-interest and passion can easily cloud judgment, leading to biased and unfair outcomes.
- Ineffective Enforcement Power: Even when judgment is just, individuals in the state of nature may lack the power to enforce natural law effectively against transgressors, leaving rights vulnerable.
These inconveniences, inherent in a state without organized political authority, drive individuals to seek a more secure and ordered social arrangement.
II. The Social Contract and the Formation of Political Society
To escape the uncertainties of the state of nature, individuals voluntarily enter into a social contract, agreeing to give up certain freedoms in exchange for the security and benefits of organized government. This contract is the foundation of legitimate political power in Locke’s theory.
From Natural Liberty to Civil Society
The transition from the state of nature to civil society involves individuals surrendering their individual executive power of the law of nature to the community. This means relinquishing the right to personally enforce the law and judge cases in favor of a collective authority.
This surrender of power is not absolute. Individuals only give up the power necessary for the society to achieve its primary end: the preservation of property, which Locke broadly defines to include life, liberty, and estate. Government is thus instituted as a trustee, entrusted with power for specific, limited purposes.
The Role of Consent
Consent is paramount in Locke’s theory. Legitimate government is founded upon the consent of the governed. Individuals must voluntarily agree to be governed; they are not born into subjection. This consent can be explicit, through direct participation in establishing a government, or tacit, through residing within and enjoying the protections of a state.
III. The Ends of Government and the Limits of Power
For Locke, the primary end of government is the preservation of property. This encompasses protecting individuals’ lives, liberties, and possessions from arbitrary interference by others, both within and outside the society.
Limited Government and the Rule of Law
To achieve this end, government must be limited and operate under the rule of law. Locke argues for several key limitations on governmental power:
- Established Laws: Government must rule by standing, promulgated laws, not arbitrary decrees. This ensures predictability and fairness, allowing individuals to know their rights and obligations.
- Impartial Judiciary: Justice must be administered by independent and impartial judges, applying the law equally to all. This prevents biased or self-serving application of the law.
- Protection of Private Property: Government cannot arbitrarily seize or dispose of citizens’ property without their consent. Taxation, for example, must be based on consent, typically through representation.
- Legislative Supremacy: The legislative power, representing the will of the people, is supreme. The executive and federative powers are subordinate to it and accountable to law.
- No Transfer of Legislative Power: The legislative cannot delegate its law-making power to any other body. It is a trust from the people and must remain with the representatives they choose.
These limitations are designed to prevent tyranny and ensure that government remains accountable to the people it governs.
IV. The Right to Revolution and Dissolution of Government
A crucial aspect of Locke’s political philosophy is the right to revolution. If government fails to uphold its trust, acting against the ends for which it was established, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
When Government Dissolves
Locke outlines conditions under which government is dissolved:
- Alteration of the Legislative: When the legislative is changed without the consent of the people (e.g., by executive encroachment or foreign subjugation), the government is dissolved because the body that expresses the will of the society is undermined.
- Breach of Trust: When the legislative or executive acts contrary to their trust, invading the property of the subjects or attempting to establish arbitrary power, they put themselves in a state of war with the people, dissolving the bonds of obligation.
Justification for Resistance
The right to revolution is not a call for anarchy or frivolous uprisings. Locke emphasizes that people are slow to change established governments and will tolerate many mistakes. However, when abuses become systematic and demonstrably threaten fundamental rights, resistance becomes not only a right but a duty.
An image representing the concept of revolution, linked to Locke’s theories on the right to resist tyrannical government.
Locke’s theory of revolution is a last resort, intended to prevent tyranny and uphold the fundamental principles of legitimate government. It serves as a powerful check on governmental power and a safeguard for individual liberty.
V. Legacy and Influence of Locke’s Second Treatise
John Locke Second Treatise of Government has had a profound and lasting impact on political thought and the development of democratic societies. Its key ideas – natural rights, limited government, consent of the governed, and the right to revolution – deeply influenced the American and French Revolutions and continue to resonate in contemporary political discourse.
Locke’s work provided a philosophical justification for constitutionalism, individual liberties, and popular sovereignty. His ideas are embedded in foundational documents like the American Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights. The Second Treatise remains essential reading for anyone seeking to understand the philosophical underpinnings of modern liberal democracy and the enduring debate about the relationship between government and the individual.
Further Reading:
- Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government. Project Gutenberg, www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7370
- Tully, James. An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke and in Contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- Goldie, Mark. Locke: Political Essays. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
