John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government, penned in 1690, stands as a foundational text in political philosophy, particularly for liberal thought. This treatise, part of his larger work Two Treatises of Government, meticulously dismantles the theory of the divine right of kings and lays the groundwork for a government based on natural rights and the consent of the governed. Locke’s ideas profoundly influenced the Enlightenment and the development of democratic societies, shaping modern political discourse on liberty, property, and the role of government.
Analyzing Locke’s Core Arguments in the Second Treatise
Locke’s Second Treatise systematically builds an argument for legitimate government, starting from a hypothetical “state of nature” and progressing to the formation of civil society. His key concepts and arguments are meticulously laid out across nineteen chapters, each building upon the last to form a comprehensive political theory.
The State of Nature and Natural Rights
Locke begins by describing the state of nature, not as a chaotic free-for-all, but as a state governed by natural law. This law, accessible through reason, dictates that all individuals are born free and equal, endowed with inherent natural rights. These rights primarily include the right to life, liberty, and property. In Locke’s view, even in the absence of formal government, individuals possess these rights and the capacity to reason and cooperate.
John Locke, the influential philosopher whose Second Treatise of Government laid the foundation for modern liberal political thought.
Property: Labor and Just Acquisition
A significant portion of Locke’s treatise is dedicated to property. He argues that individuals acquire property by mixing their labor with natural resources. God gave the Earth to mankind in common, but individual property arises when someone exerts their labor to cultivate land or harvest resources. This labor theory of property is central to Locke’s philosophy, justifying private ownership as a natural right, preceding government. However, Locke also introduces limitations, stipulating that individuals can only appropriate as much property as they can use before it spoils and must leave “enough and as good” for others.
The State of War: When Peace Breaks Down
While the state of nature is governed by natural law and reason, Locke acknowledges it is not always peaceful. The state of war arises when individuals infringe upon others’ natural rights, particularly the right to life and liberty. This state is characterized by the absence of a common judge to resolve disputes, leading individuals to take justice into their own hands. Locke emphasizes that the state of war is distinct from the state of nature; it is a condition that can occur within or outside of civil society when there is no impartial authority to enforce natural law.
Slavery: The Loss of Freedom
Locke directly addresses slavery, defining it as the continuation of the state of war between a lawful conqueror and a captive. True slavery, in Locke’s view, is absolute and arbitrary dominion over another’s life, which he argues is illegitimate. He contrasts this with lawful servitude based on consent or as a consequence of forfeited liberty in a just war. Locke’s arguments against absolute slavery were influential in abolitionist movements, although his views on slavery in practice were complex and have been subject to historical scrutiny.
Paternal Power vs. Political Power
Locke carefully distinguishes paternal power (parental power) from political power. Paternal power is temporary, existing only during a child’s minority and aimed at their education and preservation. It is rooted in nature and the responsibility of parents for their offspring. Political power, on the other hand, is derived from consent and is exercised by governments for the public good, encompassing the power to make laws and enforce them with penalties. Locke stresses that paternal power is distinct and does not provide a basis for political authority.
The Formation of Political Society: Consent and Social Contract
The pivotal concept in Locke’s Second Treatise is the social contract. Individuals leave the state of nature and enter into political society to secure their natural rights more effectively. This transition occurs through voluntary consent, where individuals agree to give up certain freedoms in exchange for the protection and benefits of government. The purpose of political society, according to Locke, is the preservation of property, broadly understood to include life, liberty, and estate.
The Ends of Government: Limited and Accountable Power
Locke argues for a limited government with specific ends. The primary purpose of government is to protect individual rights, particularly property. To achieve this, Locke outlines the necessity of established laws, impartial judges, and an executive power to enforce the laws. He emphasizes that government power is not absolute but is held in trust by the people and must be exercised for their benefit.
The Right to Revolution: When Government Betrays Trust
A significant and often debated aspect of Locke’s treatise is his justification for the right to revolution. Locke contends that if the government fails to uphold its end of the social contract – if it becomes tyrannical, violates natural rights, or acts contrary to the public good – the people have the right to alter or abolish it. This right to revolution is not a call for anarchy but a last resort to be exercised when government fundamentally betrays the trust placed in it and resorts to force without right.
The Enduring Legacy of Locke’s Second Treatise
John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government remains a profoundly influential work. Its articulation of natural rights, government by consent, and the right to revolution had a seismic impact on the development of liberal democracy. The treatise provided philosophical justification for the Glorious Revolution in England and deeply inspired the American Revolution. Its principles continue to resonate in contemporary debates about individual liberty, limited government, and the relationship between citizens and the state. Studying Locke’s Second Treatise is essential for understanding the foundations of modern political thought and the ongoing struggle for freedom and just governance.
